They can be divided into non-infectious and infectious causes. Though there are a number of non-infectious causes included under other factors (toxic, endocrinal, physical trauma or nutritional deficiencies) that can lead to abortions in cattle and buffaloes, but infectious agents are one of the most important cause. About 90% of the abortions in animals are caused by infectious agents of which abortions caused due to bacterial spp. are maximum, followed by viruses and fungi.

Cattle and buffaloes: HS, Black Quarter, FMD, Brucellosis, Anthrax and Rabies.

Poultry:

Layers: Ranikhet (F1 and R2B), IBD, Mareks disease, Infectious bronchitis, Fowl Pox.

Broilers: Ranikhet (F1 and R2B), IBD, Infectious bronchitis.

Sheep Goat: Enterotoxaemia, HS, PPR, FMD.

Pigs: Swine fever, HS, FMD.

Most of these common vaccines (Like HS, BQ, Brucellosis and FMD for cattle and buffaloes; Enterotoxaemia, HS, PPR and FMD in Sheep and Goats; HS and FMD in Pigs) are available at nominal price from CVH at village level, Polyclinics at district level or PVVI, Ludhiana at state level. However, Rabies vaccine is available from Local Medicine Shops of the area concerned. Swine fever vaccine for pigs and Poultry vaccines like Ranikhet (F1 and R2B) and Fowl Pox can be made available from PVVI (After getting letter recommended from VO of concerned village), However, Private sectors like Venky’s Lab or Indian Immunolgicals, Hyderabad also provide many of these Poultry vaccines (like IBD, MD, IB, IBD)

• FMD: First dose at the age of: 4 months and above; Booster dose at 1 month after first dose; Subsequent doses at 6 monthly interval
• HS: First dose at the age of: 6 months and above; Subsequent doses before the onset of monsoons and winter season twice a year
• Brucellosis: First dose at the age of: 4-8 months of age in only female calves (Pregnant animals should also not to be vaccinated as they may abort); Subsequent doses not needed as gives life time immunity being live vaccine
• Rabies: (Post bite therapy only: First dose immediately after bite, Booster at 4th and Subsequent doses at 7th, 14th, 28th and 90 days (optional) days after first dose.)
• Black Quarter: Age at first dose 6 months and above; booster 6 months after first dose, subsequent annually.

• HS: First dose at the age of: 6 months and above; Subsequent doses annually before monsoons.
• FMD: First dose at the age of: 4months and above; Booster at 2-4 weeks after primary vaccination; Subsequent doses after every six months in March and October
• PPR: First dose at the age of: 4 months and above; Repeat after 3 years.

• Swine fever: First dose at the age of 3 months; Second dose at 6 months of age; Repeat annually.
• HS: First dose at the age of 4-5 months of age; Repeat at every 6 months of age.
• FMD: First dose at the age of 4 months; Repeat at every 6 months.

• Mareks Disease Vaccine (HVT): day one.
• Ranikhet Disease Vaccine: RD F1 strain vaccine: day one and RDVF vaccine: 5-7 days.
• Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine:12-14 days
• Infectious Bronchitis: 18-22 days
• IB Vaccine Booster: 24-27 days
• RD vaccine Booster- La Sota: 28-30 days
• Fowl Pox Vaccine or Infectious Coryza Vaccine (if prevalent in the area): 6th week
• RD vaccine- RDVK or R2B: 8th week
• Fowl Pox Vaccine: 9th week
• IB Booster: 12th-13thWeek
• RD Booster- RDVK or R2B:18thweek
• RD La Sota repeated every once in 2 Months: 45th-50thWeek

• Marek’s disease (at hatchery): First day
• RDVF1: 5-7thday
• IBD Vaccine: 14thday
• RDV La Sota: 21stday
• IBD Vaccine (Booster): 28thday

1. Animal to be vaccinated should be healthy.
2. Deworming should have been carried out before vaccination.
3. Immune compromised animal should not be given vaccine.
4. Maintain cold chain of the vaccine by proper storage at low temperature.
5. Proper route of administration should be followed as required for the vaccine.
6. Use separate syringe and needle for each animal and dispose of the used needles and syringes safely.
7. Maintain animal health card to record the history of vaccination.
8. One herd should be completely vaccinated at one single time.
9. Vaccination should be avoided in the last trimester of pregnant animals.
10. Vaccination should have always been carried out before at least 20-30 days before the probable time of spread of the disease.

The feed samples can be got tested for mycotoxins especially aflatoxins from Mycotoxin Lab of the Department of Veterinary Microbiology. Farmers should bring representative sample of feed (about 50gm) in clean paper bag with proper labelling and the samples are then tested for mycotoxins, primarily aflatoxins, report can be taken after 5 days and the cost of the test is around Rs. 350/-

Culture sensitivity test is carried out to check presence of bacteria or fungi that can cause an infection. In sensitivity test, we check to see what kind of medicine, such as an antibiotic or antimicrobial agent, will work best to treat the illness or infection. Sensitivity test may be done if infection in animals doesn't respond to treatment. In this test, a tissue sample or secretion or excretion (like urine/ fluid/ blood/ milk) sample is taken from the body of the animal and tested in a lab to see if germs or microbes will grow from it on the artificial medium taken in Petri plates (culture). Any germs or microbes that grow from the culture will be tested against a variety of antimicrobial agents to be used in the form of medicines to find out which medicine will work best (sensitivity testing) in the body of animal.

Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections, they are also used as growth promoting agents by adding in the diet of young animals. Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change their behaviour in response to the use of these medicines and are no longer killed by the use of such antibiotics that become resistant.These bacteria may infect humans and animals, and the infections they cause are harder to treat than those caused by non-resistant (wild type) bacteria. Causes of AMR can be:

• Over-prescription and over use of particular antibiotics as growth promoters in livestock and poultry.
• Course of Antibiotic is not followed properly in humans or animals.
• Poor infection control strategy in health care settings, Poor hygiene and sanitation by humans and at animal farms.
• Absence of new antibiotics being discovered.

1. Maintain proper hygiene by remaining yourself clean and washing your hands thoroughly before visiting the Livestock Farm and taking extra precautions around vulnerable animals and premises.
2. Remain vigilant about signs of Infectious Diseases in animals at the Farm and call the Veterinary Doctor immediately.
3. If any abortion is seen or any infectious disease is suspected, segregate the sick animals from the healthy animals of the herd together with proper disposal of infected or aborted animal by deep burial and overlaying with lime.
4. Foot Bath or disinfection area should be provided at the entrance of the Farm.
5. Restrict the movement of workers from one Farm to another.
6. Restrict the entry of unwanted animals like stray dogs and cats by proper fencing or wild birds like vultures or crows etc (by proper pruning of the trees if any) which can spread the disease from one Farm to another by eating on exposed carcasses which might be infected.
7. Maintain clean mangers, drinking water supply and clean Farm environment.
8. Feed should be stored in proper bins or airy rooms with less moisture to avoid infestation by fungus and later on fungal toxins. Regular testing of feed should be done to avoid the problem of aflatoxicosis that being immunosuppressive may make the animals prone to other bacterial and viral infections.

1. Clean and disinfect feeders and waterers regularly.
2. Control the rodents and fly populations in the chicken yard. Removal of used equipment or trash is beneficial in keeping rodents and insects population under control.
3. Don't attract wild birds to the area with bird feeders or bird baths.
4. Check grass and weeds aroundpoultry houses by regular cutting.
5. Remain vigilant about signs of disease in birds at the Farm and call the Veterinary Doctor immediately.